Electric Toaster

the toaster is made of a series of heating elements mounted on mica frames and supported on a porcelain base. It is an example of heating by exposed wires and direct radiation. The heaters H are coils of flat resistance wire that are wound on wedge-shaped pieces of mica. They are supported on a wire frame that is formed to receive slices of bread on each side of the heaters. The attachment piece A and the material of the heater is similar in construction to that of the flat-iron. The electric circuit may be traced from the contacts at A and B in the attachment plug by the dotted lines which indicate the wires in the porcelain base. The current traverses each coil in turn and connects with the next, alternately at the top and bottom. The resistance is such as will permit the voltage of the circuit to send through the coils current sufficient to raise the heaters to a red heat. The added resistance of the hot wires decreases the flow of current to keep the temperature at the desired degree.

In a heater of this kind the resistance of the wire may increase with age and the coils fail to glow with a sufficient brightness. The reason for the lack of heat is that of decrease in current, due to the increased resistance of the wires. This condition may be corrected by the removal of a little of the heater coils. If a turn or two of the heater wire is removed, the resistance of the circuit is reduced and the effect of the increased current will produce a higher temperature in the heater.

The toaster is typically a small electric kitchen appliance designed to toast multiple types of bread products. A typical modern two-slice toaster draws anywhere between 600 and 1200 W and makes toast in 1 to 3 minutes. There are also non-electrical toasters that can be used to toast bread products over an open fire or flame.

Modern toasters are typically one of three varieties: pop-up toasters, ovens and conveyors.

In pop-up or automatic toasters, bread slices are inserted vertically into the slots (generally only large enough to admit a single slice of bread) on the top of the toaster. A lever on the side of the toaster is depressed, activating the toaster. When an internal device determines that the toasting cycle is complete, the toaster turns off and the toast pops up out of the slots. The heating elements of a pop-up toaster are usually oriented vertically, parallel to the bread slice - although there are some variations.

In earlier days, the completion of the toasting operation was determined by a mechanical clockwork timer; the user could adjust the running time of the timer to determine the degree of "doneness" of the toast, but the first cycle produced less toasted toast than subsequent cycles because the toaster was not yet warmed up. Toasters made since the 1930s frequently use a thermal sensor, such as a bimetallic strip, located close to the toast. This allows the first cycle to run longer than subsequent cycles. The thermal device is also slightly responsive to the actual temperature of the toast itself. Like the timer, it can be adjusted by the user to determine the "doneness" of the toast. By comparison, toaster ovens are small electric ovens with a door on one side and a tray within. To toast bread with a toaster oven, one lays down slices of bread horizontally on the tray, closes the door, and activates the toaster. When the toast is done, the toaster turns off, but the door must be opened manually. Most toaster ovens are significantly larger than toasters, but are capable of performing most of the functions of electric ovens, albeit on a much smaller scale. They can be used to cook toast with toppings, like garlic bread or cheese, though they tend to produce drier toast and require longer operating times, since their heating elements are located further from the toast (to allow larger items to be cooked). They may also heat less evenly than either toasters or larger electric ovens, and some glass cookware cannot be used in them.

toaster oven

Conveyor toasters are designed to make many slices of toast and are generally used in the catering industry, being suitable for large-scale use. Bread is toasted 350-900 slices an hour, making conveyor toasters ideal for a large restaurant that is constantly busy with growing demand. However, such devices have occasionally been produced for home use as far back as 1938, when the Toast-O-Lator went into limited production. [See www.jitterbuzz.com/indtol.html for a detailed history of the Toast-O-Lator company]

As with so many home appliances, more elaborate toasters and toaster ovens now utilize computer-controlled mechanisms in place of electromechanical controls. Toasters are usually freestanding, counter-top appliances, although some toaster ovens may be hung beneath cabinets.

Sometimes toast gets stuck in a toaster, particularly pop-up toasters, and must be freed manually. As most toasters are in the kitchen, metal knives and forks are typically an easily available tool but can cause risk of electric shock, unless the appliance is disconnected from the main electrical outlet.

Some toasters also have a small round griddle on them for making eggs with toast.

Washing Machine

When you use a washing machine, you generally select the length of wash time based on the amount of clothes you wish to wash and the type and degree of dirt you have. To automate this process, we use sensors to detect these parameters (i.e. volume of clothes, degree and type of dirt). The wash time is then determined from this data. Unfortunately, there is no easy way to formulate a precise mathematical relationship between volume of clothes and dirt and the length of wash time required. Consequently, this problem has remained unsolved until very recently. People simply set wash times by hand and from personal trial and error experience. Washing machines were not as automatic as they could be.

To build a more fully automatic washing machine with self determining wash times, we are going to focus on two subsystems of the machine: (1) the sensor mechanism and (2) the controller unit. The sensor system provides external input signals into the machine from which decisions can be made. It is the controller's responsibility to make the decisions and to signal the outside world by some form of output. Because the input/output relationship is not clear, the design of a washing machine controller has not in the past lent itself to traditional methods of control design. We address this design problem using fuzzy logic and FIDE.

For particularly dirty clothing covered with mud or dirt, it was necessary to constantly rub and flex the cloth to break apart solids and help the soap penetrate through thick, dry, or sticky layers of soil on the cloth. At first this was done by pounding or rubbing the clothing with rocks in a river, and later developed into the corrugated wash board. In Roman times a fuller would whiten clothing by stomping on it in a bucket full of fermented urine.

Washing machine technology was developed as a way to reduce the drudgery of this scrubbing and rubbing process, by providing an open basin or sealed container with paddles or fingers to automatically agitate the clothing. The earliest machines were often hand-operated but were built with the belief that the machine itself was faster and easier to operate than washing the clothing by hand directly. As electricity was not commonly available until at least 1930, these early machines were often operated by a low-speed single-cylinder hit and miss gasoline engine.

Because water usually had to be heated on a fire for washing, the warm soapy water was precious and would be reused over and over, first to wash the least soiled clothing, then to wash progressively dirtier clothing. The load of soaking wet clothing would be removed, and another load of dirty clothes added to the machine. While the earliest machines were constructed entirely from wood, later machines made of metal permitted a fire to burn below the washtub, to keep the water warm throughout the day's washing.

Removal of soap and water from the clothing after washing was originally a separate process. The soaking wet clothing would be formed into a roll and twisted by hand to extract water. To help reduce this labour, the wringer/mangle was developed, which uses two rollers under spring tension to squeeze water out of the clothing. Each piece of clothing would be fed through the wringer separately. The first wringers were hand-operated, but were eventually included as a powered attachment above the washer tub. The wringer would be swung over the wash tub so that extracted wash water would fall back into the tub to be reused for the next wash load.

The modern process of water removal by spinning did not come into use until electric motors were developed. Spinning requires a constant high-speed power source, and was originally done in a separate device known as an extractor. A load of washed clothing would be transferred from the wash tub to the extractor basket, and the water spun out. These early extractors were often dangerous to use since unevenly distributed loads would cause the machine to shake violently. Many efforts have been made to counteract the shaking of unstable loads, first by mounting the spinning basket on a free-floating shock-absorbing frame to absorb minor imbalances, and a bump switch to detect severe movement and stop the machine so that the load can be manually redistributed. Many modern machines are equipped with a sealed ring of liquid that works to counteract any imbalances.

What is now referred to as an automatic washer was at one time referred to as a washer/extractor, which combines the features of these two devices into a single machine, plus also includes the ability to fill and drain water by itself. It is possible to take this a step further, to also merge the automatic washing machine and clothes dryer into a single device, but this is generally uncommon because the drying process tends to use much more energy than using two separate devices; a combined washer/dryer not only must dry the clothing, but also need to dry out the wash chamber itself.

In 2009, L'Osservatore Romano, the semi-official newspaper of the Holy See, pronounced the washing machine an important milestone in the liberation of women, as it freed them from the drudgery of household chores.

Right now the statistics say that this machine could perform the same task by using less than 90 per cent of the water of conventional machines and 30 per cent less energy. This machine can have the environmental impact of taking two million cars off the road.

How could that be possible? Here the work of water is replaced by using thousands of tiny reusable nylon polymer beads. These plastic beads attract and absorb dirt under humid conditions. Stephen Burkinshaw said: “We’ve shown that it can remove all sorts of everyday stains including coffee and lipstick while using a tiny fraction of the water used by conventional machines.”

How does this washing machine function? This technology requires a small amount of water and detergent to dampen the clothes and loosen stains. This device also creates the water vapor that allows the beads to work. Once washing is finished, the beads fall through a mesh in the machine’s drum. These beads are reusable. One can reuse them up to a hundred times. One needs 20kg of the beads along with a cup of water and detergent. The chips can be used up to 100 times, the equivalent of six months’ washing.

A demonstration was held at the Clean Show in New Orleans between June 18th and 21st. The beads are placed inside the smaller of two concentric drums along with the dirty laundry, a spew of detergent and a little water. As the drums spin, the water wets the clothes and the detergent gets to work loosening the dirt. Then the nylon beads mop it up.

The beads have a crystalline structure. This structure makes the surface of beads with an electrical charge that attracts dirt. When the beads are heated in humid conditions to the temperature they lose their crystalline structure and acquire an amorphous structure. Now the dirt is drawn into the core of the bead where it remains locked in place.

The whole process takes about 30 minutes and the outer drum stops rotating. The inner drum has the clothes and the beads. The inner drum also has a small slot. As it keeps on rotating, the beads fall through the slot; some 99.95% of them are collected in the outer drum. The remaining that are trapped in the folds of the clothes normally fall into a collection trough while the laundry is being removed, and a vacuum wand can be used to remove them from pockets etc.

Xeros chief executive Bill Westwater said: “We’ve got an eye on the consumer but it will take time and we hope commercial success could act as a springboard to move into the consumer market. We’ve been very encouraged by the response from people, but the proof is in the pudding and that means putting a machine into someone’s operations and justifying the savings.”

We can draw the conclusion that when so little water is used and the warm beads help dry the laundry, less tumble drying is needed. An environmental consultancy, URS Corp, estimates that this washing machine’s carbon footprint was 40% smaller than the most efficient existing systems for washing and drying laundry.

Electric Heaters

Types of Home Electric Heaters

Introduction to Home Electric Heaters
Electric heaters work through resistance. That is, electrical line voltages flows through a heating element and as electrical resistance is encountered at the heating element the element heats up.

Electric wall heaters will require a dedicated electrical circuit of 120 volts or 240 volts, depending on the unit size and the size of the room to be heated.

Electric heaters work by convection or radiant heat. Convection heat uses the natural law that hot air rises and relies upon natural convection to move the heat around the room. Radiant heat or infrared is different in that it heats objects not the air.

Why is this important? Well it can determine where certain types of heaters may be located.

A convection heater will need to be located near the floor level as it has to heat cold air at the floor. A radiant heater can be located at the floor or ceiling level since it is heating objects like room occupants or the floor or tub and so on.

Electric heaters can come in a few styles. There are

wall heaters,

baseboard heaters,

toe-kick heaters and

cove or panel heaters.

Electric Wall Heaters
Wall heaters are useful for supplemental heat in small rooms, especially a bathroom. They are usually recessed in the wall cavity between two wall studs and are most often a convection style heater with a motorized fan although some models use silent radiant heat with electric coils and reflective back panel.

Most of these units are self contained and have built-in thermostats. These units should not be installed in exterior walls because of the conflict with exterior insulation and the condensation problems you will have with hot metal in a cold exterior wall.

Electric Baseboard Heaters
Electric baseboard heaters look like hydronic (hot water) baseboard heaters but use electric heating coils for non motorized convection heating. Baseboard heaters neither have room for nor are they proportioned for effective motorized cooling, so they let old mother nature take care of moving the hot air.

By using convection, cool air is drawn into the bottom slots and warmed by the heating coils and fins. Then warm air exits from the top slots of the unit. These units are usually placed beneath windows to counter heat loss through the glass.

A remote line voltage thermostat may be used to control the baseboard heater or it may come with an integrated thermostat control. It is important to keep the unit clear of drapes and unobstructed by furniture for best performance.

Electric Toe-kick Heaters
Toe-kick heaters are ideal for limited space applications. They are designed to be very low profile, about 3.5" which allow them to fit nicely in a 4" toe space under cabinets and vanities. Their proportions allow the use of a motorized forced air fan to distribute warm air.

For best performance they should be used as a supplemental source of heat and have a remote line voltage thermostat, however most models also have the option of a built-in thermostat.

Electric Cove Heaters
Electric cove heaters use direct radiant (infrared) heat for maximum comfort. Since radiant heat does not warm the air but rather objects, you, your tile work, tub, etc. are all warmed by the radiant heat energy of the panel. Radiant heat allows the panel to be placed anywhere, so this is the reason the cove heater can be located on the wall just below the ceiling. Out of the way but still effectively located for your comfort.

Table Lamps

Lighting is what gives the room, character and comfort. Good lighting relaxes, warms and provides a soothing atmosphere for the senses.

Table lamp serve as one of the most popular lighting accessories to create an elegant look in the rooms. In the typical Indian styling, table lamps are the center of attraction in the house. Used as exclusive table lighting in both traditional and contemporary settings, the table lamps are placed in the decor for a dash of style.

The skilled Indian artisans select color combinations that are intentionally chosen for the light and dark contrasts that form an important choice. Using simple patterns, often combining metal and wood with art glass, they create table lamp that provide lighting in perfect coordination with the exquisite home furnishings. The extremely decorative table lamps are designed in a variety of shapes and sizes.

Every electrician has his or own way of wiring lighting circuits but basically there are only three different ways, two of these are almost identical.

Method 1

This is what I consider the hard way, It is difficult because you do not have lots of room inside the switch box but has the advantage of having a neutral wire inside which could be useful for wall lights etc!

here is a diagram of the connections at the switch with the earth removed for clarity-

As you can see from the above diagram the 3 Neutral wires are all connected together in a insulated terminal, the live in and out are connected together at the non switched side of the circuit and the switched live goes to the Lamp!

Method 2

The loop in wiring system is straight forwards but has the disadvantage of making it difficult to replace the ceiling rose for a more modern style light fitting.

I fitted one which was purchased from a well known furniture retailer and the light fitting had 6 live wires,6 neutral wires and 1 earth wire, joining these to a ceiling rose would be near impossible.

The above diagram shows how the power is fed from the consumer unit to the first light and then to each consecutive light on the circuit hence it is named the circuit wire. The earth wires are not shown for clarity. Try and follow the path of the electricity-

This is much simpler than it appears, for ease of explanation I have numbered the three terminals at the ceiling rose.

The Electricity travels along the wire from either the consumer unit or another ceiling rose, the live is connected to terminal 2 and the neutral to terminal 3 as are the wires which go to feed the next ceiling rose.

The red wire from the switch is connected to terminal 2 and the black wire from the switch is connected to terminal 1, this black wire is the switched live and requires red insulation tape to be neatly wrapped around it as once the switch is ON the wire becomes live. This makes terminal 1 the switched live terminal.

The lamp is now simply connected between the neutral (terminal 3) and the switched live (terminal 1) When the switch is turned on or off it restores or cuts the switched live terminal and the light goes on or off accordingly.

Above you can see the connections to be made at the switch, once again the black conductor becomes live once the switch is in the ON position and therefore needs wrapping in red insulation tape.

Method 3

This is my favorite method of wiring Lighting circuits for a couple of reasons, firstly you can work above the junction box as you wire it but with the ceiling rose system you have to stretch from a ladder, secondly you only need to have one cable to connect to the light, so there's just one Neutral, one switched Live and a earth- simple.

To use the junction box method all you need do is replace the ceiling rose with a Junction box but instead of doing it on the ceiling you do it above the ceiling. A cable is now joined to Neutral (terminal 3) and switched live (terminal 1) and earth.

This cable is passed through the hole in the ceiling and wired directly to the light fitting, remember to put red tape around the black insulation as this is the switched live!

When a lighting system is installed in a property, the electrician normally wires it the easiest way which is to simply have the light fitting along side of a joist, the screw from the ceiling rose will hopefully get a grip in the beam or joist which will hopefully hold the light fitting up, the problem with this is when you wish to replace it with for instance a combination fan/light. Screwing into the joist whilst covering the hole in the ceiling made from the wires that have been pushed through is almost impossible!

You will also find in older houses that in the main living room the light is off central, this is because when the house was built a rack was placed over the fire for drying clothes and so the light had to be fitted off center.

Heavy light fittings require special care when fitting, if one drops from the ceiling it could be fatal!

The best way to support a heavy light fitting is to lift the floor boards above the ceiling rose unless you are in a upstairs room, in which case it should just be a matter of going into the loft space. Now locate the wires that are feeding the light fitting and after isolating the supply and marking the switch wires pull them into the area where the joist or beams are, now wire the circuit back up by following the instructions for the juntion box wireing . Measure the distance between the joists or beams and cut a piece of 3/4 inch plywood or blockboard to the correct size, make the board approx 12 inches wide. Place the board on top of the hole where the old light fitting was and then mark the hole from below. Drill the hole out and then cut 2 pieces of 2 inch by 1 inch timber 1 foot long. Screw the 2 pieces on the top edge of the board then screw the two pieces of 2*1 into the joists or beams.

Now simply push the wire for the light fitting through the holes, then connect to the new light fitting and screw to the ceiling, switch the electricity back on and test

Lighting circuits in the home are normally protected by a 5 amp fuse or circuit breaker, there are normally 2 circuits one for upstairs and one for the ground floor. These circuits are normally wired using 1.0mm² twin core and earth cable, personally I always opt for 1.5mm² twin core and earth as it can carry more current and so the lighting circuit can be enlarged safely by increasing the value of the fuse or circuit breaker.

Electric Mixer

electrical appliances in the kitchen, chores havebecome a child's play. A real kitchen revolution and a release from the drudgery our grandmothers went through to prepare lunch and dinner for what was usually a sizeable family. Today, you can prepare pasta sheets,bread, puddings and anything else just a few hours before serving it up.The multi-function dough maker represents a major step forward. It is better
known as a mixer and is slowly replacing the robot, especially in terms of
sturdiness (the robot is usually made from plastic, the mixer from metal). The
functions are basically the same. The types of utensils that can be attached
to the main rotor are the only things that vary: a hook, a whisk or a spatula.
Centrifugal and other types of electric mixers
Standing alongside the robots and mixers and gaining in popularity are mini
electrical appliances: Electric mixers (with glasses and immersion),
centrifugal mixers and beaters. Compared to the robot, the glass mixer is
used for liquid and semi-liquid foods (but also for crushing ice) to be prepared
in smaller quantities; the immersion version is particularly useful for whisking
soups and sauces directly in the receptacle on the hob.
The centrifugal mixer is preferred as a healthier and vegetarian alternative:
fruit and vegetables are reduced and the centrifugal force ensures that the
juice is separated from the pulp, which is strained into a receptacle. The end
result is clear, pure juice.
The beater is really an electric whisk: it is ideal for small quantities and
allows greater flexibility in the positioning of the whisk, which can be
changed quickly.

A mixer is a kitchen appliance intended for mixing, folding, beating, and whipping food ingredients. Mixers come in two major variations, hand mixers and stand mixers.

A hand mixer, as the name implies, is a hand-held mixing device. It typically consists of a handle mounted over a large enclosure containing the motor, which drives one or two beaters. The beaters are immersed in the food to be mixed.

In 1870, Sir Walter Scott of Providence, R.I., invented the first hand egg beater. U.S. Patent

A stand mixer is essentially the same as a hand mixer, but is mounted on a stand which bears the weight of the device. Stand mixers are larger and have more powerful motors than their hand-held counterparts. They generally have a special bowl that is locked in place while the mixer is operating. Heavy duty commercial models can have bowl capacities in excess of 100 quarts (95 L), but more typical home and commercial models are equipped with bowls of around 4 quarts (4 L). A typical home stand mixer will include a wire whip for whipping creams and egg whites; a flat beater for mixing batters; and a dough hook for kneading.

The first electric mixer was invented by Herbert Johnston in 1908 and sold by the KitchenAid division of the Hobart Manufacturing Company.

Older models of mixers originally listed each speed by name of operation (ex: Beat-Whip would be high speed if it is a 3-speed mixer); they are now listed by number.

The current KitchenAid domestic food mixer is an American classic, little changed from the original design patent application of 1937.

Another classic American design is the Sunbeam MixMaster domestic food mixer, which first went on sale in May, 1930.

Mixers should not be confused with blenders. Blenders contain sharp blades and typically operate at higher speeds that chop, liquefy or otherwise break down larger food items. A mixer is a much slower device without blades.

Electric Mixer Grinder

We specialize in the manufacturing of a heavy duty gamut of electric mixer grinders of chef mate. Fabricated using impeccable quality raw material and latest technology, these electric mixer grinders are widely appreciated among our clients for their durability and reliability.

The specifications of these mixer grinders are mentioned below:

• Heavy duty 1100 watts powerful universal motor
• Heavy-duty 1-stainless steel 2.0 liter capacity liquidizing jar with easy & firm grip handle
• 1-stainless steel 500gms capacity mini grinding jar with food grade rubber gasket
• Hardened stainless steel universal blades for toughest kitchen needs
• 3-speed control switch with incher facility for greater versatility
• Unbreakable ,poly carbonate see through dome cover with dome cap for viewing contents & adding liquids during operations ,with clips, provided with food grade rubber gasket
• Also provided hygienic poly-carbonate cover for s/s dry-wet grinding jar with food grade rubber gaskets
• Overload protection for motor
• Shock proof double insulated abs body
• No load speed maximum 18000 rpm max.
• 90 minutes rating (5 min on-2 min off)
• 230v-1100 watts ,50 Hz, single phase only
• 30-minutes rating (5 min on-2 min off)
• Class-1 ,protection
• E-class insulation

Domestic Mixer Grinder

We have acquired tremendous expertise in the manufacturing of an industrially verified gamut of domestic mixer grinders of the Camry make.

These domestic mixer grinders are made from upgrade technology and are provided to our clients in the following specifications:

• 500 watts powerful ISI mark universal motor for rapid grinding
• 1-stainless steel 1.5 liter capacity liquidizing jar with easy to grip handle
• 1-stainless steel 1-litre capacity dry-wet-grinding jar
• 1-stainless steel 200 grams capacity mini chutney jar
• Hardened stainless steel universal blades
• 3-speed control switch with incher facility
• Poly carbonate see through dome cover for viewing contents & adding liquids during operations
• Food grade rubber gaskets
• Hygienic see through, unbreakable poly carbonate covers for s/s jars
• Overload protection for motor
• Shock proof double insulated abs body
• No-load speed maximum 18000 rpm.
• 230v-500 watts ,50 Hz, single phase
• 30-minutes rating (5 min on-2 min off)
• Class-1,protection
• E-class insulation
  
• 
  
• Rapid Grinding Mixer Grinder

  

  The assortment of rapid grinding mixer grinder offered by us is widely applicable in several sectors including household and commercial. The duro gold plus model provided by us is customized for our clients as per their requirements and is offered in the following specifications:
  
  FEATURES:
  
  
• Heavy duty powerful motor
• 100% Stainless steel jars
• Noiseless motor design with overload protector.

CONTENTS INSIDE BOX

Basic Motor Unit, S.S. Liqudizing Jar with blade fitted, Polycarbonate dome cover with clips & rubber ring S.S. Wet grinding jar with blade fitted with cover & rubber ring S.S. Mini Chutney jar with cover and rubber ring, 1 Spatula, Instruction Manual & Warranty Card.

TECHNICAL DETAILS OF MIXER GRINDER

• Model : YUVI
• Volts : 230 V, AC Only 50 Hz.
• Watts : 750 Watts
• Rating : 30 Min. (5 Min.”ON”/2 Min. “OFF”)
• Insulation : CLASS E

Electric Iron

Hand irons are device useds for garment pressing, irons have been heated directly by gas flame, stove plate heat, or in the case of the modern iron by electricity. Henry W Seely patented the electric iron in 1882.

The Electric Iron
On June 6, 1882, Henry W. Seely of NYC patented the electric iron, at the time it was called the electric flatiron. Early electric irons used a carbon arc to create heat, however, this was not a safe method. In 1892, hand irons using electrical resistance were introduced by Crompton and Co. and the General Electric Company. During the early 1950s electric steam irons were introduced.

Mrs. Potts Sad Irons
Mrs. Potts invented the Potts Removable Handle Iron.

Streamlined Electric Irons
Collectors page on early electric irons.

Antique Pressing Irons
Collectors page that provides some history lower on the page. Smoothing Stones have been around since the 8th and 9th century and are known as the earliest western ironing devices, looking somewhat like a large mushroom.

Ironing or smoothing is the work of using a heated tool, or tools, (an iron) to remove wrinkles from fabric. The heating is commonly done to a temperature of 100°Celsius. Ironing works by loosening the bonds between the long-chain polymer molecules in the fibers of the material. While the molecules are hot, the fibers are straightened by the weight of the iron, and they hold their new shape as they cool. Some fabrics, such as cotton, require the addition of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. Many modern fabrics (developed in or after the mid-twentieth century) are advertised as needing little or no ironing.

Ironing may also be used as a germ/parasite killing hygienic operation, such as in areas where the Tumbu fly is prevalent.

The iron is the small appliance used to remove wrinkles from fabric. It is also known as a clothes iron, flat iron, or smoothing iron.The iron has a long history of development. The iron started out as a coal powered appliance. With the introduction of electricity iron began getting more and more advanced, to the point at which cordless irons are now in use.

Ironing works by loosening the ties between the long chains of molecules that exist in polymer fiber materials. With the heat and the weight of the ironing plate, the fibers are stretched and the fabric maintains its new shape when cool. The heating is commonly done to a temperature of 100°Celsius. Some materials such as cotton require the use of water to loosen the intermolecular bonds. Many materials developed in the twentieth century are advertised as needing little or no ironing.

The world's largest collection of irons, encompassing 1300 historical examples of irons from Germany and the rest of the world, is housed in Gochsheim Castle, near Karlsruhe, Germany.

The physics behind ironing is the liquid-glass transition. When the fabric is heated above this transition, the fibers become mobile so that the weight of the iron can impose onto them a preferred orientation.